Positive vs. Negative Freedom of Religion

The positive (active) freedom of religion is the right to actively express one's religious beliefs - i.e.: the right to religion.
The negative (passive) freedom of religion refers to the right not to have to communicate one's religious stance (a question that is often asked at school, in hospital, or in offices that hand out official documents), not to have to take part in religious education at school, to be "spared" from the teachers' and classmates' expression and practice of religion - i.e.: the freedom from religion.



Negative freedom of religion is something both people of different faiths and non-believers benefit from (Hector, n.d.). Atheists, in fact, can protect themselves by demanding their negative freedom of religion (Schröder, 2005). However, it does not mean that due to one's negative freedom of religion one may keep others from exercising their positive freedom of religion (Heckel, 2004). It is, therefore, rather limited in everyday life as one cannot refer to negative freedom of religion when asking for a "religious free environment" without churches ringing their bells or muezzins calling to prayer (Starck, n.d.).



Positive and negative freedom of religion cannot be separated from each other (Fuchs, 1999). Promoting one's positive freedom may mean reducing somebody else's negative freedom - as, for instance, the never ending discussion about the crucifix in the classroom shows. This discussion, however, can be led in a more balanced way when considering whose positive and negative freedoms are considered and whose are not.
Some scholars do not consider positive and negative freedom of religion as thesis and antithesis but as a synthesis that protects both the right to do something and the right not to do something (Siering, 2011). Focusing on positive freedom of religion and neglecting the negative aspect of freedom distorts freedom and changes it into something only religiously committed people are entitled to. There can only be freedom of religion if both complementary aspects are taken into account (Bielefeldt, 2012).



- Bielefeldt, H. (2012). Streit um die Religionsfreiheit. Aktuelle Facetten der internationalen Debatte, online
- Fuchs, C. (1999). Das Staatskirchenrecht der neuen Bundesländer. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck
- Heckel, M. (2004). Gesammelte Schriften. Staat, Kirche, Recht, Geschichte. Band V. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck
- Hector, P. (n.d.) Zur Religionsfreiheit in der Rechtssprechung des Europäischen Gerichtshofs für Menschenrechte, online
- Schröder, T. (2005). Religionsfreiheit im abendländischen Kontext, online
- Siering, L. M. (2011). Die negative Religionsfreiheit und ihre Bedeutung bei aufenthaltsbeendenden Maßnahmen. Berlin: LIT
- Stark, C. (n.d.). Religionsfreiheit in Deutschland als positive und negative Freiheit, online
- images via and via and via

"A double life."

"But what is scandal? Scandal is saying one thing and doing another; it is a double life, a double life. A totally double life: ‘I am very Catholic, I always go to Mass, I belong to this association and that one; but my life is not Christian, I don’t pay my workers a just wage, I exploit people, I am dirty in my business, I launder money…’ A double life. And so many Christians are like this, and these people scandalize others."



"How many times have we heard – all of us, around the neighborhood and elsewhere – ‘but to be a Catholic like that, it’s better to be an atheist.’ It is that, scandal. You destroy. You beat down. And this happens every day, it’s enough to see the news on TV, or to read the papers. In the papers there are so many scandals, and there is also the great publicity of the scandals. And with the scandals there is destruction." (via)



photographs via and via

Bacon & God's Wrath

Sol Friedman's beautiful, wonderful, fantastic documentary "Bacon & God's Wrath" is about Razie Brownstone, an impressive Jewish woman who is about to turn ninety, who had a strict religious upbringing, who became an atheist (she prefers the term non-believer) after discovering the internet two years ago and who is going to eat bacon for the very first time. Award-winning animator and filmmaker Friedman has blended live-action and animation techniques in his short documentary (via and via).

"Faith. In some ways it is like believing in ghosts or Santa or the tooth fairy." Razie

And when did you come to learn that?

"Well, I wished that my story was a bit more interesting. Like if I had questioned God about suffering a tragic loss or wrestled after accepting my son being gay. But my adult life hasn't been that interesting. It was simple and nice (...). And then two years ago I started using the internet." Razie

So, Razie, how was it (eating bacon)?

"Seemed perfectly OK. I was not stricken down by a heavy arm of the Lord. I seem to have survived fine. And I didn't throw up." Razie

Here the 8-minute documentary:



image via

Anti-Atheist Prejudice & Katherine Hepburn

"I'm an atheist, and that's it. I believe there's nothing we can know except that we should be kind to each other and do what we can for people."
Katherine Hepburn



Considering religion as a conditio sine qua non for moral living can lead to negative sentiments, the marginalisation and even persecution of non-believers. In a poll, only 45% of US-Americans responded that they would vote for a qualified presidential candidate if he or she were an atheist. It was the lowest percentage a hypothetical minority would get - the willingness to vote for African American, Jewish or female candidates was much higher. Atheists were also the group most people disapproved of their children marrying.
Religiosity seems to be viewed as a guarantee for trustworthiness - the most valued trait  in other people - by religious believers. In a "trust game", religious participants transferred more money to religious partners even if their religions differed. Denying the existence of gods, based on these findings, means being less trustworthy.
In their study, Gervais et al. examined religiosity and trustworthiness and came to the conclusion that distrust is a central factor atheists are confronted with. The authors compared anti-atheist prejudice with anti-gay prejudice which both tend to be characteristic of highly religious groups. The profiles differed as distrust was more central to anti-atheist prejudice than to anti-gay prejudice.

- - - - - - - - -
- Gervais, W. M., Shariff, A. F. & Norenzayan, A. (2011) Do You Believe in Atheists? Distrust Is Central to Anti-Atheist Prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(6), 1189-1206;
- photograph of Katherine Hepburn by Burt Glinn via  

Moonrise Kingdom, Scouting & Religion

In 1906 and 1907, the military officer Robert Baden-Powell wrote a book for boys about scouting, a few years later a new organisation for girls (the "guides") was created. Today, Scouting and Guiding is practiced in many countries worldwide, such as Indonesia, Uganda, France, the Philippines, Pakistan, Nigeria or Japan (via).



The Boy Scouts of America recognises a wide range of religious affiliations (e.g. Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism) (via). Recent controversy rather refers to the non-religious than to the "different"-religious. Scouting has been criticised by the National Secular Society for putting non-believers off joining. The society quotes the obligatory scout promise that includes the line "to do my duty to God".



Nevertheless, the Scout Association seems to become more accessible. It launched a new range of clothing in 2012 following requests from a growing number of Muslim girl members (via). British designer Sarah Elenany created it with the aim "to highlight how the scouts are modernising, increasing diversity and responding to members". In UK Chief Scout Bear's words: "Scouting has something to offer everyone, no matter your religion, ethnicity or belief" (via). And the non-believers? While the core Scout Promise remains in place, this year, Guide leaders said that the promise to "love my God" was discouraging some girls and volunteers from joining and decided to change it. Instead, new Guides now pledge "to be true to myself" (via).



Photos (from Wes Anderson's Moonrise Kingdom, 2012) via and via and via

"That Godless Institution in Gower Street"

Founded in 1826, University College London (UCL) describes itself as radically different. And it started rather early. When attendance at an English university still required conformity to the Church of England, University College London decided not to apply religious tests to its students. This secular approach caused a lot of resistance, scepticism and rejection (Götz, 2008).

 

The educator, historian and supporter of the Broad Church Anglican Thomas Arnold (1795-1842) called UCL the "Godless institution in Gower Street". The Scottish clergyman Edward Irving (1792-1834) referred to it as "the Synagogue of Satan".

 

From the beginning, one of the main principles of UCL was the prevention of religious discrimination. Today, the university's secular approach is to deliver diversity, equality and tolerance. Its Equalities & Diversity website provides information for UCL managers to enhance tolerance for religious and non-religious staff, on the Religious Equality Policy for students, a Religious Festivals Calendar, and much more. The university also offers a contemplation/quiet room for its staff and students.

 

University College London decided not to apply religious tests. And with this very act, the "Godless" institution attracted both atheists and - most interestingly - members of other religions.



In fact, most of the international human rights documents that protect religious freedom tend to avoid clear definitions of religion in favour of broader terminology that includes theistic, non-theistic and atheistic beliefs. According to the UK regulations, references to religion or belief include reference to an absence of a particular belief (Vickers, 2006). Accepting only students from one's own religious background means discriminating against those with different belief but also those with non-belief. University College London opened its doors to both.

 

Sources:
- Götz, R. (2008) Die Gründung der University College London, in Beck, R. & Schröder; K. (eds.) Handbuch der britischen Kulturgeschichte: Daten, Fakten, Hintergünde von der römischen Eroberung bis heute. Stuttgart: UTB
- Moazedi, M. L. (2012) Religion und "die Gebildeten unter ihren Verächtern". Ein Gedankenabriss zur Beziehung zwischen Religion und Bildung. In: Prisching, M., Lenz, W. & Hauser, W. (eds.) Diversität als Bildungsfaktor, 51-68. Wien: Verlag Österreich
- Vickers, L. (2006) Religion and Belief Discrimination in Employment - the EU law (via)

 

More photographs by Arthur Schatz (Life Magazine, 1969) via