Stereotype Threat and Female Football Players

In their study, Grabow and Kühl (2019) tested whether stereotype threat, i.e., poorer performance because of the fear of fulfilling a negative stereotype, affected female football players' performance Stereotypically, women are regarded as unable to play football, women's football is considered to be less interesting ... and this has an effect on their performance.

Female football players (n = 80) were randomly assigned to either a threat (reading a text that reminded of the stereotype) or no-threat condition. Those who were reminded of the stereotype, in fact, scored significantly less hits than those not reminded of it. 

The threatened group read:

Although men and women do not directly compete playing football, one can state on a scientific basis that men outperform women in motor tasks concerning force and velocity (Knisel, Opitz, Wossmann, and Ketelhut, 2009). Research supposes that there are hardly differences between men and women concerning the capability characteristics concentration, aplomb, and precision. During this study, the shooting precision of women shall be video-recorded and analysed in order to advance research.

The text for the non-threatened group:

In the realm of football one can state on a scientific basis that there are individual differences in motor performance concerning force and velocity (Knisel, Opitz, Wossmann, and Ketelhut, 2009). In how far there are individual differences concerning the capability characteristic shooting precision has not yet sufficiently been researched. During this study, the shooting precision shall be video-recorded and analysed in order to advance research.

- Grabow, H. & Kühl, M. (2019). You Don't Bend It Like Beckham if You're Female and Reminded of It: Stereotype Threat Among Female Football Players. Frontiers in Psychology link
- photographs by Letizia Battaglia (1980) via and via and via

Forced to Retire

Manuel Gräfe is planning to sue the German Football Association for age discrimination. When he turned 47 in the last season, he was no longer allowed to continue to work as a referee despite being in shape, good performances and enjoying his job. Gräfe points out that the German Football Associaton states to stand up for diversity and to fight racism and discrimination but is at the same time keeping up the age limit. 

In the Netherlands, the age limit was abolished about twenty years ago (via), FIFA announced to eliminate age limits for international referees in 2014 (via and via), the Scottish Football Association made the announcement in 2012 (via). 

"We have seen examples elsewhere of match officials maintaining standards beyond the previous cut-off of 47 and it will be a major benefit to us in Scotland." John Fleming, SFA's head of referee development

"The retirement age of a referee was 48 back in 2000, but today, luckily, we don't have an age limit." Mike Dean, Premier League referee

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photograph (PA Archive/Press Association Ima), 1963 via

Football World Cup Team Stereotypes

Here is a lovely collection of football stereotypes...



Germany: A bunch of teutonic robots who play unsexy but merciless and efficient football in rigid formations, and always seem to make at least the semi-finals of everything. They never crack under pressure, suffer injuries, or have major disciplinary issues.

Italy: Gesticulating prima donnas who worship at the altar of the beautiful game and fly into the air screaming and clutching at their limbs at the slightest tap. Often disappointments, but when everything clicks, (...), it’s beautiful.

England: A bunch of egotistical Premier League superstars who on paper should be dominant but can never quite figure out how to play together. No matter the tactical genius of whatever European coach has been brought in, they always end up just hoofing it downfield over and over and largely failing to score. Utterly doomed if things go to penalties.

Brazil: Forever the kings of football, whose legendary stars like Pele and Ronaldo could create goals out of nothing and dance around whole teams with a smile on their face.

Argentina: They run circles around everyone and score some of the most beautiful goals in football’s history, but they’re also dirty rotten cheaters. Wait, can you tell this is being written by an England fan?

United States: Chipper, harmless underdogs who just learned how to play “soccer” (lol wut) last week or so and probably compete in some sort of amateur league back home. Weirdly good at producing internationally renowned goalies. Can’t seem to decide on a color for their uniform—are they red? White? Blue? Some combination featuring stripes? (literally via)
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photograph (Gigi Riva) via

"We play for a nation that doesn't even know our names." Women Playing Football

The first Women's World Cup was held in Italy in 1970, a decade that was characterised by several countries lifting their ban on women's football and establishing new teams across Europe and North America (via). Currently, the eight edition of FIFA Women's World Cup is being hosted in France (via). Generally speaking, it surely does not get the media coverage the FIFA (Mens') World Cup gets but in Britain, it is attracting a bigger audience than cricket (via).



Before 1921, women's football flourished in England with about 150 women's teams whose matches "pulled bigger crowds than most men's games". Then women were banned from playing football on pitches with spectator facilities, i.e. professional stadiums, since the sport was "quite unsuitable for females". This ban was lifted in 1971 (via), the same year women's football "hit the big time" in Mexico, "a success because the organisers did not assume it would be a commercial or sporting failure. It was sold and promoted as football tournament, one that just happened to feature women" (via).

Women's participation in football also provides a good example of the mutual ripple effect that can exist between a sport's level of television coverage and its increasing uptake in the community. Since the 2011 World Cup, media coverage of international women's football fixtures has steadily gained traction – not least on the back of the French team's commendable performances, which have subsequently pulled in higher audiences. Alongside these television and sports performances, the number of female members of football clubs has soared since the 2010-2011 season (+90%).
Conseil Supérieur de l'Audiovisuel, 2017:10

Here is a strong message of female empowerment (Germany's Women's World Cup advert):



photograph (French team, 1979, photo credit: AFP/CARL FOURIE) via 

Football's Problem of Not Seeing the Problem: Nationalism and the Croatian Football Team

"Yugoslavian football once served as an important unifier of Yugoslavia by fostering ideals of 'Brotherhood and Unity'. However, once Tito died, football took on a different role, fostering ethnic nationalist sentiments and contributing to the demise of Yugoslavia."
Adnan Kajetzovic (2015)



So far, FIFA has collected more than 650.000 euros through fines that had to be paid for disciplinary reasons. The highest ones were those for not respecting marketing deals. The Swedish team, for instance, was charged 60.000 euros and 43.000 euros in another incident for wearing socks of a brand that was not licenced. During this World Cup, FIFA received 250.000 euros paid for wearing the wrong socks. Fines look different when it comes to racism and nationalism. When Russian fans used a poster with a code for "Heil Hitler", there was a fine of only 8.500 euros. Croatian footballer Vida dedicated the match with Russia to Kiev and the Ukraine. FIFA just warned him not to do that again. When a Croatian footballer drank a beverage produced by a brand not licenced by FIFA in public, 60.000 euros had to be paid (via).

Euro 1996:
Croatian coach Blazevic stirs up nationalist emotions in the run-up to the quarterfinal announcing the "German tanks and Stukas" will be met by Croatian "commando troops and kamikaze pilots" (Schiller, 2015).

World Cup 1998:
Croatia is still busy constructing a nationhood shortly after the demise of Yugoslavia. The World Cup 1998 is used as a means to invent nationalist traditions. Newspaper accounts, for instance, clearly show a pro-nationalist rhetoric (Milasincic, 2013).

Euro 2008:
Croatia manager Bilic plays Thompson (will be explained in the next paragraph) songs to his players (via). Croatian fans shout Nazi slogans and give "Heil Hitler" salutes in Austria, which, according to the police spokesman, is not hooliganism but just a "beer brawl" (via). At the Euro 2008, Asner is spotted supporting his Croatian team - the number four on the most wanted list of Nazi-hunters, wanted by Interpol for genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity (via).

Euro 2012: 
Some "key people from the football federation insist that a nationalistic song is played before every Croatia match", sung by Thompson (the stage name of Perkovic) whose songs are about murderings Serbs in concentration camps and slogans used by Croatian fascists (via). Perkovic had had to stand trial in 2008 because of the salute he demonstrated during a concert in Croatia. In Switzerland, by the way, his concerts were cancelled as they were not compatible with anti-racism laws (via), in the Netherlands Perkovic was banned from performing in 2004 (via).

When Uefa fined the Croatian Football Federation (HNS) €80,000 for offences including racist abuse of the Italy striker Mario Balotelli, the media back home reacted with relief. It could have been much worse – a points-deduction for the 2014 World Cup qualifying, for example – and the fine was generally viewed as being too lenient, especially after the Uefa president Michel Platini had said he was dismayed by some of Croatia supporters. "I'm not happy with Croatia", the Frenchman said. "They are a good team but it's unacceptable when you've got a hundred or so arseholes among the crowd."
The Guardian

Markovic, president of the Croatian Football Federation in 2012, causes controversy when he refuses to visit Auschwitz as many other teams at Euro 2012 have done. After much pressure, he finally sends a delegation to the memorial centre but does not join them. He is also the one who refers to the team Dinamo Zagreb as the "ultimate Catholic club" and makes sure that as long as he is presidet, there will be no gay players adding "Thank goodness only healthy people play football." His successor Suker openly shows his support for a Croatian leader "who ruled a second world war puppet state" with the help of Nazi Germany (via).

World Cup qualification 2013:
Controversies again, due to tasteless chants by fans and defender Simunic who shout to the fans the war call ("For the Homeland, ready") used by Ustashas, "the Croatian pro-Nazi puppet regime that ruled the state during the second world war when tens of thousands of people perished in concentration camps". Fans show a tradition of combining the chant with the Nazi salute. The Croatian Football Association has been fined by Fifa and Uefa  in the past (via). FIFA suspends Simunic for ten matches - which, according to his lawyers - is done because of a "Greater Serbian lobby" interfering - and fines him for 24.000 euros. Two years later, he becomes the assistant coach of Croatia (via).

World Cup 2014:

"Croatia performs a very distinct, and very political, type of nationalism in its matches, a kind of behavior that makes much of Europe deeply uncomfortable" (via). Croatian fans are seen with banners with anti-Semitic and neo-Nazi symbols (via).

World Cup 2018:
Football is seen as a continuation of the war, Croatian footballers, such as Lovren, openly support Thompson (via). Even in Austria, Croatian fans celebrate with Ustasha flags, the Nazi salute, and buttons displaying the word "Endsieg" ("Final Victory") after beating Russia. Nationalist Socialist reactivation is strictly forbidden in Austria, the Office for Protecting the Constitution and Fighting Terrorism is carrying out investigations. After the Argentina-Croatia match, a clip is published online showing the two footballers Lovren and Vrsaljko singing Thompson's nationalist war song in the locker room, a song that starts with a salute Ustasha used (via).

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- Kajtezovic, A. (2015). The disintegration of Yugoslavia and football. University of Norther Iowa, link
- Milasincic, A. (2013). Nationalism and Sporting Culture: A Media Analysis of Croatia's Participation in the 1998 World Cup, link
- Schiller, K. (2015). Siegen für Deutschland? Patriotism, Nationalism and the German National Football Team, 1954-2014. Historical Social Research, 40(4), 176-196.
- photograph of French football player Jean-Pierre Adams via

Football, Domestic Violence and the Lightning Seeds

According to research conducted by Lancaster University, there is a positive correlation (not necessarily causality) between football and domestic abuse. The study focused on Lancashire (UK) analysing data from 2002, 2006, 2010 and 2014 World Cups. Results show that domestic violence rises by 38% when the England team loses and by 26% when the team wins. Incidents are 11% higher the day after the team played and reach a peak at the weekend the team exits the World Cup. When England plays a match, an average of 79.3 incidents are reported versus 58.2 when they are not playing (via).




A not so little Lightning Seeds link pack:

::: What If: LISTEN/WATCH
::: Pure: LISTEN/WATCH
::: Sugar Coated Iceberg: LISTEN/WATCH
::: What You Say: LISTEN/WATCH
::: Perfect: LISTEN/WATCH
::: Ghosts: LISTEN/WATCH
::: You Showed Me: LISTEN/WATCH
::: Lucky You: LISTEN/WATCH
::: Change: LISTEN/WATCH
::: Marvellous: LISTEN/WATCH
::: Ready or Not: LISTEN/WATCH
::: Sweetest Soul Sensations: LISTEN/WATCH
::: Life's Too Short: LISTEN/WATCH
::: The Life of Riley: LISTEN/WATCH
::: All I Want: LISTEN/WATCH

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image via

(Un-)Quoting Frederik Jacobus Johannes Buytendijk

"Football as a game is first and foremost a demonstration of masculinity as we understand it from our traditional view of things and as produced in part by our physical constitution (through hormonal irritation). No one has ever been successful in getting women to play football. ... Kicking is thus presumably a specifically male activity; whether being kicked is consequently female - that is something I will leave unanswered."
Buytendijk (1953:20)



"Kicking differs essentially from throwing. For one thing, kicking is by nature more aggressive than throwing; for another, throwing is linked to catching, i.e. receiving, whereas kicking is linked to kicking back. ... One can certainly throw like a girl, but one can only kick like a man."
Buytendijk (1953:20)

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- F. J. J. Buytendijk (1887-1974), Das Fussballspiel. Eine psychologische Studie, published in 1953
- photograph of the Dick Kerr Ladies F.C. via

"I chose freedom over a constructed prison." Football and homophobia.

"Although many major sports in the world have witnessed a liberalization in which gay competitors have felt emboldened, or at least comfortable in revealing their sexual orientation openly and without fear of embarrassment or censure, football has not. Gay players have typically remained secretive during their active playing careers. Some have talked openly about their sexuality, but usually only after retiring." (Cashmore & Cleland, 2014).


Elton John playing football (1976) via

Football is called a refuge for outdated notions of "true masculinity", a sphere of "male culture, male bonding, and male power". In other words, it is a place where sexism and homophobia meet. Men who do not play well, for instance, are called "girls" or "faggots" while women who play well are called "viragos" or "lesbians". "Homophobia and sexism are often understood as being part of the cultural logic of football. Racist, sexist, or homophobic forms of behaviour are intended to provoke, insult, or humiliate the opponents and their fans and as such become legitimate strategies for winning the match." (Walther, 2006). In women's football the situation is said to be slightly different (via).


Aston Villa return to Birmingham with the cup in 1957. via

Due to this "football culture", coming out becomes rather difficult. For a long time, English footballer Justinus Soni "Justin" Fashanu (1961-1998) was the only professional footballer to come out as gay. He publicly came out in 1990, became a target of abuse and took his life eight years later (via). Fashanu became a "symbol of the continuing problems faced by gay men and women in sport" (via).
British semi-professional footballer Liam Davis has been out for four years: "I just got to a stage in my life where I had no reason to hide who I was." (via).


Villa fans on the terraces in 1975. via

In 2013, US-American Robbie Rogers striker/winger came out of the closet and became the second professional male footballer in Britain to do so (via and via). He announced that he was gay after leaving the club: "You're afraid to tell people and be open with stuff and so it's hard to just change. A lot of gay men and women who aren't out and don't really accept that they're gay, live with a bit of self-hate." "So I had to be so blunt about it, but hating yourself is very damaging." Rogers came out when he was 25: "I always heard homophobic things in locker rooms, on soccer fields, you know, before training, after training." "Whether it was joking or whether it was malicious, I just heard so many different things that scarred me and made me think that there's no chance I'm ever going to come out - ever - to anyone." (via). Rogers received more support than he had expected. Among others, FIFA president Joseph Blatter thanked him for his courage (via).
US-American football player David Testo came out of the closet in November 2011: "I really regret not having said publicly earlier. I fought with it all my life, my whole career. Living the life of a professional athlete and being gay is incredibly difficult. It is like wearing a secret in his bags but never yourself. It saps all your energy to you, in addition to having to perform, having to play." (via).


Aston Villa footballer Ron Wylie playing football with his son Nigel in the garden of their home. 15th June 1968. via

German midfielder Marcus Urban was a "rising star" in the 1980s who was unable to continue his career since he was terrified to be outed and living a double life was unbearable: "I hid 24 hours a day, I adjusted." "It was an almost unbearable pain, a great sacrifice, a painful price to pay to achieve my goal of becoming a professional footballer." By his early 20s he was burned out. Urban retired from the game when he was 23: "I realized that if I became a professional footballer, I would suffer as a man. I chose freedom over a constructed prison." (via). He came out in 2007 (via).
Heinz Bonn, an aspiring German talent in the 1970s, also decided to hide and suffered from anxieties. His life ended tragically in 1991 (via).
German midfielder and high-profile footballer Thomas Hitzlsperger retired last September and came out this January to break the taboo. He is the first German football professional to come out and received widespread support (via). Former colleagues twittered their respect, the Deutsche Fußball-Bund (German Football Association) promised to give him all the support needed, politicians and the German government praised his choice (via).


Terraces: Villa supporters in September 1978. via

In 2009, French football player Yoann Lemaire took a sabbatical from his amateur club FC Chooz because one of his colleagues had made homophobic comments. When he wanted to return to his club he had spent 14 years with, team managers refused to register him again to avoid "trouble" with his teammates (via). French football striker Olivier Rouyer came out in 2008 after having retired (via).


A crowd of Aston Willa supporters await the teams arrival with the FA cup outside the Town Hall. May 1957 Credit: Mirror Pix. via

Norwegian U19 football defender Thomas Berling ended his career before it really started because of the homophobic atmosphere (via).
Anton Hysén was the first (and so far only) Swedish semi-professional football player to come out (via) in March 2011. Despite the mostly positive reactions he said that he could not generally recommend a coming out (via).
Dutch football player John de Bever, Belgian Jonathan de Falco, ... the list is not exhaustive but there are probably not that many football players to add who have come out publicly. And certainly even fewer ones if only those are considered who did so before retiring. Compared to the past, however, more football players seem to choose "freedom over a constructed prison".


Villa fans on the terraces in 1970. via

Homophobia in football seems to be more openly and widely discussed. Clubs, managers and fans have started to show support. Quoting Roy Hodgson, manager of the English national football team who supported the "Football v Homophobia" campaign last year: "I can say from experience that football is a game that transcends different cultures and religions and it's a sport that lends itself to things like diversity and inclusion because of the worldwide appeal." "Like anything, education is the key to progression and creating an atmosphere that allows everyone to enjoy the game we’re all passionate about." (via).


Michael Caine and Bobby Moore via

- Cashmore, E. & Cleland, J. (2014) Football's Dark Side: Corruption, Homophobia, Violence and Racism in the Beautiful Game. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan
- Walther, T. (2006) Kick it out. Homophobia in Football. european gay & lesbian sport federation (via)

Football: No to Racism

Racism on the sports field is still a problem. On 28 April, Villareal fan David Campaya Lleo threw a banana at Brazilian defender Dani Alves da Silva during a football match. Villareal was fined by the Spanish Football Federation, Campaya Lleo was arrested (via), Alves took the banana, peeled it, ate it and sparked a worldwide social media campaign: Football stars and other (famous) people posted pictures of themselves holding bananas to show solidarity with Alves (via). Chiquita Hellas included "Say No To Racism" in the Chiquita logo (via). In March, Brazilian referee Marcio Chagas was called "monkey" by fans who shouted "go back to circus" or "the jungle is your home" (via). After the match, he found a pile of bananas on his car's windshield (via), the doors were scratched (via). Chagas says he has been exposed to more than 200 racially-motivated attacks during his career as a referee (via). 24 hours later, Brazilian football player Marcos Arouca da Silva was called "monkey" (via). Brazil, football and racism is not a rare combination. Brazil, however, can easily be replaced by other countries.


A great many black players avoid talking about the racist attacks as they are afraid of harming their career (via). In 2005, Thierry Henry launched the campaign "Stand Up Speak Up" together with Nike - one year after Spain's national manager Luis Aragonés had referred to him as a "negro de mierda" (via).

Italian striker Mario Balotelli has experienced covert and overt racism more than once (via and via). Goalkeeper Idriss Carlos Kameni was pelted with bananas by his own fans during an Atletico-vs.-Espayol game in 2005 (via). During a Barcelona-vs.-Real-Zaragoza match, Samuel Eto once threatened to leave the field but was persuaded to stay (via). Midfielder Kevin Constant did leave the field (via). So did Kevin-Prince Boateng from FC Schalke 04 after being racially abused; he said he would do it again: "Racism does not go away. If we don't confront it, it will spread" (via).  Marco André Zoro Kpolo recently wrote:

“Nine years after racist incident in Italy during the match FC Messina vs Inter milan, I am still subject to the same incident in Greece. During the match OFI FC vs ARIS, this Saturday, March 2, 2014, all of the ARIS fans turned against my small personality shouting racist abuse of all kinds, probably just because their team could not score lol. With the full knowledge of all official, I complain to the referee, and I am surprised to receive a yellow card in return” (via). 

Manchester midfielder Gnégnéri Yaya Touré suffered monkey chants during a Champions League game (via), Brazilian football star Roberto Carlos considered retiring after a banana was thrown at him during a match in Russia - which was not the first time. He left the pitch: "You know when that sadness hits, that feeling of being powerless? I left there sad, hurt. So many kids there. That has to be banned from football". (via). The retired football defender Lilian Thuram, founder of "Fondation Lilian Thuram. Èducation contre le racisme", stresses the fact that we really need to educate against racism. So does John Barnes who suffered racist abuse during his career at Liverpool in the 1980s (via).



... Ronaldinho, Dixie Dean, Clyde Best, Ade Coker, Paul Canoville, Garth Crooks, Patrice Evra, Anton Ferdinand, Cyrille Regis, Stan Collymore, Viv Anderson, Nigel de Jong, Dalian Atkinson, Felix Dja Ettien, Antonio Geder, André Bikey, Paul Ince, Bryan Roy, Romário, Ruud Gullit, Aron Winter, Boubacar Kébé, Abdeslam Ouaddou, Frédéric Mendy, Oguchi Onyewu, Zola Matumona, Kinglsey Onuegbu, Adebowale Ogungbure, Gerald Asamoah, Henri Belle, Daniel Braaten, Caleb Francis, Pa Modou Kah, Shaun Wright-Phillips, Ashley Cole, Papakouly Diop ... ... ...
... ... ... different decades, different countries, different clubs, different people ... many of them considered as the best football players ... all of them racially abused by (opposition) fans, trainers and/or club chairmen. The status of being successful superheroes with the highest salaries and nominations as the best players does not protect these football stars from becoming victims.