Swimming upstream in a sea of ageism

"We all swim in a sea of isms. They emerge as humans develop and apply stereotypes as shortcuts to avoid engagement with our fear of difference. Once they are widely accepted, stereotypes tend to become exaggerated and widely understood as objective descriptions of the way life is and was always meant to be. As Gordon Allport noted, at this point stereotypes pose a situational threat to the groups they target."
Amanda Barusch

photograph by Robbie McIntosh via

Internalising Ableism from a Young Age

Jóhannsdóttir et al. (2022) studied internalised ableism based on four focus-group sessions with young people (aged 18-35) who identified as disabled. The participants reflected on their childhood and adolescence and shared their experience that ableism made their impairment "a sensitive marker of something 'abnormal' and 'undesirable', which again made them even more aware of their (...) differences and negative portrayal in society". 

I understand it; I don’t know if I would date me, with everything that comes with it. So, I understand people, even if it is not the right attitude, or maybe not very modern. I cannot get frustrated or angry with people because I understand it 100%.

In fact, having to constantly fight notions of normality, abnormality, prejudice, and stigma, dealing with people's stares, patronising comments, aggression and micoraggression led to exhaustion, anxiety, depression and isolation. Adolescence was referred to as a particularly difficult time. Some participants mentioned isolation and disconnection to be everypresent. Being treated as inferior made them feel unworthy of both love and belonging, that again reinforced shame. And shame was strongly linked to mental health issues and negative body image. A few participants considered internalised ableism to be the main barrier to their wellbing in later life.

The extent to which internalised ableism developed was mediated by family support, peer interactions, networks and safer spaces. In line with prior findings, ableism started early ... sometimes even before birth when encountering doctors. Having a disabled child is often seen as a tragedy or a burden on the family. Some parents actively fought these notions, others identified with these ideas. One participant of the focus groups said:

It’s like if you are born disabled, your parents need education on everything their child can do. Not that the doctor comes and says, “This is what is wrong, and this … and this… and this.” Too often, a grim picture of the baby’s condition is painted. When rather someone should come and say, “These are the resources available for you …. Your child can do this … and this … and this.” The focus is too often on what is wrong with the baby but not what the baby is capable of.

Gender, ethnicity, social status and other intersections also had an impact on how strongly discrimination was felt.

For me, it is complicated to discuss relationships because I am a lesbian. (…) people connected that to my disability, saying that I just knew myself as a woman. And that I did not know men. That is why, according to them, I am attracted to women because it is the only thing I know! (everyone laughs)

The lack of socialising experiences with other disabled children was discussed in a controversial manner showing that this separation might hinder young people from identifying with other disabled people.

I had a very good paediatrician who fought for me to not associate with other disabled children, that is, I would not go to a special school, not go to the summer camps for disabled children, like my brothers. And yes, I spent much more time around non‐disabled children.

I started experiencing that when I was around disabled children. I did not understand what they were going through… I did… I disregarded my disability. Mine was not as important/valid as that of others.

Summer camps for disabled children, i.e., the forced segregation experienced, for many, were ...

Just really hard summers … where we, as young children, experienced the vulnerability of other children in this place. It kind of sticks with me, this vulnerability and aloneness of the other children. We were not experiencing one another’s strengths, you know. There is a huge difference between experiencing peer support through strength and empowerment and enduring what we experienced in that summer camp.

The feeling of disconnection, unlovability, and unworthiness can result in deep shame making people internalise ableism at a young age. There are other ways.

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- Ásta Jóhannsdóttir, Snæfríður Þóra Egilson & Freyja Haraldsdóttir (2022). Implications of internalised ableism for the health and wellbeing of disabled young people. Social Health Illn, 44(2), link
- photograph (Oksana with a leaf of cabbage from the garden of the Internat where she lives in isolation with more than 60 girls and women categorised as disabled. Pretrykhiv, Ternopil, Ukraine. 2016) by Carolyn Drake via

The -ism Series (38): Face-ism

The term "face-ism" was first introduced in an article published by Archer et al. in 1983. It refers to the relative facial prominence (ratio of the face to the total visible body) in depictions of men versus women. In their five studies, the authors assessed the prevalence of face-ism in five US-American magazines and newspapers (n = 1.750), in publications from 11 cultures (n = 3.500), and in artwork over 600 years (920 portraits and self-portraits). They found evidence that men are depicted with greater facial dominance than women. 

The authors observed this difference also in amateur drawings of men and women (by 40 male and 40 female undergraduate students). Most interestingly, in their fifth study, they found ratings of intelligence and personality characteristics depending on the facial prominence (n = 60) (Archer et al., 1983).

The phenomenon of face-ism and the varying judgement of persons based on facial prominence was found in a great many studies following Archer et al.'s, such as the attribution of less mental activity and morality, less intelligence and likeability to people with less facial prominence.

Cus Babic, Robert and Musil's (2018) findings are also consistent with previous research showing that face-ism is also prevalent on the internet. In their analysis of selfies (n = 2.754) from Bankgok, Berlin, London, Moscow, New York and Sao Paolo posted on Instagram, the authors came to the conclusion that photographs of men focus on the face while those of women focus more on their bodies.

Face-ism is also seen as a manifestation of sexism since "Western societies traditionally value men’s intellect, more prominence is given to men’s faces, whereas the relative prominence of women’s bodies communicates the value placed on their physical appearance instead of their intellect". Less face and more body enhances the perception of object-like persons (Cheek, 2016).

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- Archer, D., Iritani, B., Kimes, D. D., & Barrios, M. (1983). Face-ism: Five studies of sex differences in facial prominence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(4), 725–735.
- Cheek, N. N. (2016). Face-ism and Objectification in Mainstream and LGBT Magazines. PLoS One, 11(4), link
- Cus Babic, N, Robert, T. & Musil, B. (2018). Revealing faces: Gender and cultural differences in facial prominence of selfies, PLoS One, 13(10).
- photograph by Joel Meyerowitz via

The -ism Series (37): Mammy-ism

Abstract: AfricanAmerican women can experience some feelings of self-hatred to the extent that they evaluate and then devalue their physical characteristics (facial features, skin color, hair texture, personal behaviors) referencing beauty standards set by European Americans who imbue White supremacy. These same Black women may find themselves acting out certain behaviors in historically defined and ascribed roles dictated by individual and institutionalized racism, roles that help to maintain the dependency and oppression of Black women. One such role ascribed to a Black woman is that mammy.



This article addresses the concept of mammy and the maintaining of the mammy cultural image. The diagnosis of Mammy-ism is discussed as an example of one way that AfricanAmerican women historically assume the role and acquiesce to this socially determined inferior status, demonstrate attitudes of self-alienation, and display mental confision. As a result, African social reality and survival thrust are displaced with European social reality and survival thrust. African women who display the above characteristics suffer from the mental disorder of Mammy-ism. The Azibo nosology categorizes Mammy-ism as a subcategory of Psychological Misorientation (genetic Blackness minus psychological Blackness). (Abdullah, 1998)

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- Abdullah, S. S. (1998). Mammy-ism: A Diagnosis of Psychological Misorientation for Women of African Descent. Journal of Black Psychology, 24(2), 196-210.
- photograph via 

Making Our Society Just and Humane

"The convergence and interaction of liberating forces at work in society against racism, sexism, ageism and economic imperialism are all oppressive 'isms' and built-in responses of a society that considers certain groups inferior. All are rooted in the social-economic structures of society. All deprive certain groups of status, the right to control their own lives and destinies with the end result of powerlessness. All have resulted in economic and social discrimination. All rob (American) society of the energies and involvement of creative persons who are needed to make our society just and humane. All have brought on individual alienation, despair, hostility, and anomie."
Walton (1979)

photograph by Lee Friedlander via

The -ism Series (36): Transhumanism

"Things don’t get better simply because we have the latest and greatest technology. While I would certainly argue that there is such a thing as genuine progress, such as universal literacy or peaceful and free societies, these are not guaranteed either by the trajectories of history or the development of technology. Technologies can be used to support both freedom and tyranny. Technology is not inherently either the problem or the solution, but is instead a tool through which ethical progress might be implemented or hindered."
DeBaets (2011)



There are different sub-movements within transhumanism "ranging from environmentalists and feminists of the left to religious and cultural conservatives on the right" (DeBaets, 2011), from a moderate approach that focuses on enhancing human characteristics to a strong one that is about overcoming the so-called limits of human nature (Friberg Felsted & Wright, 2014), including death. And ageing, of course, as this is regarded as its main cause. These transhumanists believe that we should merge with machines to remake ourselves "in the image of our own higher ideals" with enhanced physical and mental capabilities (via). Technology's possibilities can surely make us enthusiastic but there is a downside to it: the feeling of superiority and the message that you shall not age and shall have an abled body.

History is littered with the evil consequences of one group of humans believing they are superior to another group of humans. Unfortunately in the case of enhanced humans they will be genuinely superior. We need to think about the implications before it is too late.
Blay Whitby

The human body as a site of inquiry is not a contemporary concept, and notions of what classifies as a human body has largely influenced biopolitical regimes and sovereign power. Biopolitical discourses that culminated in the Nazi eugenics regime during World War II held the belief that specific types of bodies were inferior to others, and ultimately classified as inhuman, which resulted in the liquidation of countless individuals under the rubric of racial hygiene. Nazi eugenics is an extreme example of both the sovereign power over life and death, and a quest for corporeal perfection; more subtle examples can be seen in contemporary Western society, such as the treatment of disabled individuals.
David-Jack Fletcher (2014)

Ageing is regarded as a process of increasing deficiency, as something that needs to be overcome and is feared (via). Similarly, disability is eradicated by altering, improving, enhancing or erasing the "undesirable deficits or disabilities" (Fletcher, 2014). By doing so, transhumanist technologies enhance so-called normal human bodies and "provide therapy to those deemed Other" which again may perpetuate "notions of acceptable bodies and biopolitical hierarchies" (via). In extreme cases the assumption is made that society would be better off if there were no persons with disabilities born (DeBaets, 2011).

While most would agree that disability denies individuals the same quality of life as those deemed " abled, " this eradication ultimately relies upon secular humanist notions of the perfect human. Transhuman technologies hold obvious implications for the human body, however they also hold implications for what it means to be an acceptable body; ultimately these technologies aim to create the perfect human by eradicating the disabled Other.
David-Jack Fletcher (2014)

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- DeBaets, A. M. (2011). Enhancement for All? A Feminist Ethical Analysis of the Discourses and Practices of Democratic Transhumanism. Conference Proceedings, LINK
- Fletcher, D.-J. (2014). Transhuman Perfection: The Eradication of Disability Through Transhuman Technologies. Humana.Mente, 24, LINK
- Friberg Felsted, K. & Wright, S. C. (2014). Toward Post Ageing. Technology in an Ageing Society. Heidelberg et al.: Springer.
- Manzocco, R. (2019). Transhumanism. Engineering the Human Condition. History, Philosophy and Current Status. Cham: Springer.
- images via and via

The -ism Series (35): Environmental Racism

"Environmental racism is racial discrimination in environmental policy-making and enforcement of regulations of laws, the deliberate targeting of communities of color for toxic waste facilities, the official sanctioning of the presence of life threatening poisons and pollutants for communities of color, and the history of excluding people of color from leadership of the environmental movement."
Chavis cited in Holifield (2001)

We strongly believe that the actions that led to the poisoning of Flint’s water and the slow response resulted in the abridgement of civil rights for the people of Flint. We are not suggesting that those making decisions related to this crisis were racists, or meant to treat Flint any differently because it is a community of color. Rather, the response is the result of implicit bias and the history of systemic racism that was built into the foundation of Flint.
Arthur Horwitz

Environmental racism means that ethnic minority groups are burdened disproportionally by both decision-making processes and distributive patterns (Holifield, 2001). Examples are locating polluting facilities mainly in communities of colour and introducing environmental laws that are racist in their implementation and application (Lazarus, 2000).

A report published back in 1987 found that ethnicity was "the predominant factor related to the presence of hazardous wastes in residential communities throughout the United States", even "the most significant determinant of the location of hazardous waste facilities" (Godsil, 1991). Things do not seem to have changed as study after study indicate the disproportionate risks from pollution ethnic minorities face. According to a report published in 2018, "people of colour" and people in poverty "are exposed to more fine particulate matter", a carcinogen and contributor to lung conditions, heart attacks, asthma, low birth weights, high blood pressure, and premature deaths. The more an area is segregated, the higher the levels of exposure (via).

Reasons discussed are, for instance, economic ones like locating facilities where it is the least costly to build and maintain - which happens to be in so-called communities in colour - to the residents' economic powerlessness and their limited economic ability to move to other residential areas. Minority groups are, in addition, usually politically weak and cannot conduct campaigns against the companies' decisions successfully. Neither are they sufficiently represented in governement (Fisher, 1994).

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- Fisher, M. R. (1994). On the Road from Environmental Racism to Environmental Justice. Villanova University Charles Widger School of Law Digital Repository, 5(2), 449-478, link
- Godsil, R. D. (1991). Remedying Environmental Racism. Michigan Law Review, 90(2), link
- Holifield, R. (2001). Defining Environmental Justice and Environmental Racism. Urban Geography, 22(1), 78-90.
- Lazarus, R. J. (2000). "Environmental Racism! That's What It Is." Georgetown University Law Center, link
- photograph of siblings Julie, Antonio, and India Abron collecting their daily allowance of bottled water from Fire Station 3, Flint, Michigan (by Wayne Lawrence, National Geographic) via

The -ism Series (34): Inclusive Tourism

According to the World Tourism Organization, inclusive tourism has the potential to contribute to gender equality and reduce poverty. Tourism can take place "in a variety of environments, including rural or underdeveloped areas", hence its capacity to promote a more inclusive development. It can, theoretically (tourism employment tends to be unstable), create jobs in underdeveloped rural areas and by doing so reduce poverty. More than in any other sector, women develop as entrepreneurs (via) ...



... , however, there is still - like in many other business sectors - the problem of horizontal and vertical gender segregation of the labour market:

Horizontally, women and men are placed in different occupations - women are being employed as waitresses, cleaners, travel agencies sales persons, flight attendants, etc., whereas men are being employed as gardeners, construction workers, drivers, pilots, etc. Vertically, the typical "gender pyramid" is prevalent in the tourism sector - lower levels and occupations with few career development opportunities are being dominated by women and key managerial positions dominated by men. (Ramchurje, 2011)

Apart from the labour market, women play a role as travellers and face specific problems (mainly concerns for personal safety) when, for instance, travelling alone (Jordan & Aitchison, 2008). Inclusive tourism is not only about gender and socioeconomics. Sexual orientation, disability, and age are further dimensions that need to be considered.

One in three LGBT travellers (32%) feels they are treated differently due to their sexuality when on holiday. This was a key finding of research conducted in September 2016 by British-owned tour operator Virgin Holidays. The study – a survey of 1,000 adults who identified at LGBT conducted by OnePoll – also highlighted the fact that sexuality had a major influence on where LGBT British adults travelled, with two thirds (63%) refusing to visit somewhere with an unwelcoming attitude towards the LGBT community. It is clearly important for people to be able to feel comfortable when they travel, yet apparently almost a quarter (23%) of LGBT travellers change the way they act and try to camouflage their sexuality when on holiday.
UNWTO

Solo travelling "no longer lies with the 20-something backpacker that stereotypes suggest". In a survey, the highest percentage of people who would travel alone was found among 55-64-year-olds (35%) and over 65s (31%) which again means that the tourism industry needs to react to these travel habits (via) and to "demographic challenges" (as an ageing society is constantly called a "challenge") in general (Nikitina & Vorontsova, 2015). So far, only "very little attention" has been given  to senior tourists in literature (Patterson & Balderas, 2018).
For people with disabilities, tourism can still be a challenge (via). In many Western industrialised countries, discussions on Accessible Tourism for All started in the late 1970s and intensified in the past twenty years. Nevertheless, this approach is far from being widespread and still a niche segment (Kagermeier, n.d.) with a lack of products and services (Özogul & Baran, 2016).

‘Inclusive Tourism’ is often referred to as ‘Accessible Tourism’ or even ‘Disabled Tourism’. Disabled people were used to be and still are partially excluded from the leisure activities offered to people without mobility problems. Therefore accessible tourism is about making it easy for all people, irrespective of their gender, age or physical status, to enjoy tourism experiences. It is a set of services and facilities for individuals with special needs, who are for example disabled, elderly travellers, pregnant women, parents pushing their children in strollers or even people with temporary injuries, such as a broken leg or chronic ailments. All these people need to be particularly enabled during their travel. Thus, accessible tourism is the ongoing attempt to ensure that tourist destinations, products and services around the world are accessible to all people, regardless of their physical limitations, disabilities or age. (...) Not only the mobility-impaired people benefit from the improvements, but also their relatives, friends and other companions. Accessibility in tourism is a social right which concerns all citizens. It is often limited to a certain group of people but it should be seen in a more holistic approach (...).
Münch & Ulrich (2011)

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- Jordan, F. & Aitchison, C. (2008). Tourism and the sexualisation of the gaze: Solo female tourists' experiences of gendered power, surveillance and embodiment. Leisure Studies, 27(3), 329-349.
- Kagermeier, A. (n.d.). Challenges to attaining "Acessible Tourism for All" in German destinations as part of a CSR-oriented approach. BEST EN Think Tank XVI. Building Escellence in Sustainable Tourim Education Network.
- Özogul, G. & Baran, G. G. (2016). Accessible tourism: the golden key in the future for the specialized travel agencies. Journal of Tourism Futures, LINK
- Patterson, I. & Balderas, A. (2018). Continuing and Emerging Trends of Senior Tourism: A Review of the Literature. Journal of Population Ageing, LINK
- Ramchurje, N. A. (2011). "Tourism" a Vehicle for Women's Empowerment: Prospect and Challenges, LINK
- Nikitina, O. & Vorontsova, G. (2015). Aging Population and Tourism: Socially Determined Model of Consumer Behavior in the "Senior Tourism" Segment. Procedia - Social and Behavior Sciences, 214, 845-851.
- photograph by Vivian Maier via

The -ism Series (33): Nuclear Colonialism

"Nuclear colonialism is a system of domination through which governments and corporations disproportionately target and devastate indigenous peoples and their lands to maintain the nuclear production process."
Danielle Endres



Nuclear colonialism refers to a system that targets indigenous peoples in order to maintain the nuclear production process. Rhetorically, it "excludes American Indians and their opposition to it". A large part of the world's nuclear industry is sited on Native lands or their surroundings, i.e., reservation and sacred lands threatening the people's health and cultural survival, poisoning their environment. In the U.S., about 70% of uranium mining takes place on Native lands. Between 1951 and 1992 alone, "over 900 nuclear weapons tests were conducted on the Nevada Test Site (NTS) land claimed by the Western Shoshone under the 1863 Treaty of Ruby Valley" exposing Indigenous people to radiation again and again. From the exploration to the dumping of radioactive waste, each step contributes to the genocide and ethnocide of Indigenous peoples (via).

American Indian resistance is an important part of the story of nuclear colonialism. Despite the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act's limitations, American Indian activists were instrumental in getting it passed.
Danielle Endres

Black US-Americans are also excluded in the rhetoric:

Well before Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. spoke out against nuclear weapons, African Americans were protesting the Bomb. Historians have generally ignored African Americans when studying the anti-nuclear movement, yet they were some of the first citizens to protest Truman's decision to drop atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.
(...) from early on, blacks in America saw the use of atomic bombs as a racial issue, asking why such enormous resources were being spent building nuclear arms instead of being used to improve impoverished communities. Black activists' fears that race played a role in the decision to deploy atomic bombs only increased when the U.S. threatened to use nuclear weapons in Korea in the 1950s and Vietnam a decade later. (...) the nuclear issue was connected to colonialism: the U.S. obtained uranium from the Belgian controlled Congo and the French tested their nuclear weapons in the Sahara. (via)

"Atomic ballet" with a (stemless) mushroom cloud at Upshot-Knothole Dixie of Operation Upshot-Knothole. The photographs of ballet dancer Sally McCloskey were taken by photographer Donald English on 6 April 1953

Sometimes we would cover it from Angel’s Peak, take pictures of the mushroom cloud. Sometimes we’’d take dancers up to the top of the peak. I’’d have one girl, Sally McCloskey, we did a little series that was called Angel’’s Dance. And she was a ballet dancer, not a showgirl, and she did an interpretive dance to the mushroom cloud as it came up and we shot a series of pictures and sent it out on the wire and they called it Angel’’s Dance. We just did anything we could to make the picture a little bit different because the newspapers would run the mushroom cloud pictures, but they were always hungry for anything that had any kind of a different approach.
Donald English

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- Endres, D. (2016). The Rhetoric of Nuclear Colonialism: Rhetorical Exclusion of American Indian Arguments in the Yucca Mountain Nuclear Waste Siting Decision. Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies, 6(1), 39-60, LINK
- Schwartz, J. A. (2016). Matters of Empathy and Nuclear Colonialism: Marshallese Voices Marked in Story, Song, and Illustration. Music & Politics, X(2), LINK
- photographs of nuclear dancer via and via and via

The -ism Series (32) : Human Expansionism

"We have suggested that one of Star Trek's most central concerns is the question of how to define humanity. This is a double-edged project: on the one hand it is staged through the use of non-humans species who are designed to function as a foil against which human qualities become more apparent. On the other hand, these non-humans species themselves end up being progressively 'humanised'. (...)"



The tradition of what we might call a form of human expansionism - whithin Star Trek's own value system - tends to take it for granted that it is better to be human. One strategy here is for the alien beings to become progressively humanised - they are introduced as 'the other' and become steadily incorporated within a human value system."
(Barrett & Barrett, 2017)

At the same time, however, the Starfleet's Prime Directive is that "No starship may interfere with the normal development of any alien life or society" (via). In other words, human expansionism needs to be distinguished from colonisation. In addition, Star Trek may "unwittingly impart an unwarranted sense of anthropocentrism" when having "bilaterally symmetrical bipedal humanoids" playing aliens only because it is both easier and cheaper to make up actors as aliens instead of creating aliens (via). To me, Star Trek has never been about creating visually impressive alien beings. It is about the stories these alien cultures tell, their problems, their progress, and Roddenberry's vision of an inclusive society.

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- Barrett, M. & Barrett, D. (2017). Star Trek. The Human Frontier. London & New York: Routledge
- image via

Pope Francis: Fundamentalism, Ideological Extremism - a Disease of All Religions

"Fundamentalism is always a tragedy. It is not religious, it lacks God, it is idolatrous."
Pope Francis



"All of us are quite aware of, and deeply worried by, the disturbing social and political situation of the world today. Our world is increasingly a place of violent conflict, hatred and brutal atrocities, committed even in the name of God and of religion. We know that no religion is immune from forms of individual delusion or ideological extremism. This means that we must be especially attentive to every type of fundamentalism, whether religious or of any other kind. A delicate balance is required to combat violence perpetrated in the name of a religion, an ideology or an economic system, while also safeguarding religious freedom, intellectual freedom and individual freedoms. But there is another temptation which we must especially guard against: the simplistic reductionism which sees only good or evil; or, if you will, the righteous and sinners. The contemporary world, with its open wounds which affect so many of our brothers and sisters, demands that we confront every form of polarization which would divide it into these two camps. We know that in the attempt to be freed of the enemy without, we can be tempted to feed the enemy within. To imitate the hatred and violence of tyrants and murderers is the best way to take their place. That is something which you, as a people, reject."
Pope Francis

"Together, we must say no to hatred, to revenge and to violence, particularly that violence which is perpetrated in the name of a religion or of God himself. We Catholics, we have a few, even many fundamentalists. They believe they know absolute truth and corrupt others. I can say this because this is my Church."
Pope Francis

"God cannot be used for personal interests and selfish ends; he cannot be used to justify any form of fundamentalism, imperialism or colonialism."
Pope Francis

"It is essential that all citizens – Muslim, Jewish and Christian – both in the provision and practice of the law, enjoy the same rights and respect the same duties,” Francis said. “Freedom of religion and freedom of expression, when truly guaranteed to each person, will help friendship to flourish and thus become an eloquent sign of peace."
Pope Francis

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photograph of Papa Francesco via

The -ism Series (31): The Two Components of -isms & Their Common Elements

"Every ism has two components. Something we value and something we do not. The subject of the isms can be negative or positive.



For example, ageism reflects the negative labelling and treatment of the elderly.We could equally call ageism youthism, which values the abilities of youth. Racism carries a double meaning: a value of one race over another and the discrimination against another race. Sexism describes (usually) the valuing of the male sex and the discrimination (usually) against the female sex. Ableism values certain abilities, which leads to disableism the discrimination against the ‘less able’."
Wolbring (2008:252)




"IT IS VIRTUALLY impossible to view one oppression, such as sexism or homophobia, in isolation because they are all connected: sexism, racism, homophobia, classism, ableism, anti-Semitism, ageism. They are linked by a common origin— economic power and control— and by common methods of limiting, controlling and destroying lives. There is no hierarchy of oppressions. Each is terrible and destructive. To eliminate one oppression successfully, a movement has to include work to eliminate them all or else success will always be limited and incomplete.
To understand the connection among the oppressions, we must examine their common elements. The first is a defined norm, a standard of rightness and often righteousness wherein all others are judged in relation to it. This norm must be backed up with institutional power, economic power, and both institutional and individual violence. It is the combination of these three elements that makes complete power and control possible. In the United States, that norm is male, white, heterosexual, Christian, temporarily able-bodied, youthful, and has access to wealth and resources. It is important to remember that an established norm does not necessarily represent a majority in terms of numbers; it represents those who have ability to exert power and control over others."
Pharr (2002:53)




- Pharr, S. (2002). Homophobia: A Weapon of Sexism. Berkeley: Chardon Press.
- Wolbring, G. (2008). The Politics of Ableism. Developtment, 51, 252-258.
- photographs by Melvin Sokolsky (Bubble Series for Harper's Bazaar, 1963) via and via and via and via and via and via

The -ism Series (30): Football Hooliganism

Football hooliganism shows a clear age, gender and ethnic pattern, i.e., it is a predominantly male, juvenile and white phenomenon.



In the past, football hooliganism was seen as an "English disease", manifestations of it in other societies were called an imitation of what was going on in England. There is the notion that this is a stereotype since incidents of violence of socially organised fan groups suggest that football is used as an excuse to fight all over the world and that hooliganism is a transnational problem. In some countries, though, there is "a notable absence", such as in ireland, Portugal and Norway. Generally, forms and level of hooliganism vary from country to country. Historically, it started in England, in continental Europe it "underwent a process of cultural creolization".



The age structure is slightly changing as "semi-retired" hooligans are still involved in football violence from time to time reviving "the good old times" of football hooliganism with a sense of nostalgia and romance. Back then, there was less surveillance and there were fewer controls. Today's hooliganism, to the "sentimental hooligan", is alienated from the original hooligan ethos which meant attacking others with weapons.

Despite a significant proportion of minority ethnic members, whiteness is considered to be a source of collective identity, at least when analysing hooligan supporters of six clubs in London, Rotterdam and Barcelona (Spaaij, 2006). Football teams "stand for something beyond the game itself", politicians and journalists who recognise the power of football create national myths, use football to glorify the nation and its leaders, foster national sentiment and identity (Tamir, 2014).

Football hooliganism is also about creating a male identity. Here the discussion between two Sparta hooligans that can be seen as rather representative (Spaaij, 2006):

G: We have never had any women in our group really.
B: Well, just one. Remember N?
G: True, but she was only there as the girlfriend of M, wasn't she?
B: But she was tougher than all of us. I used to see her beating up big blokes, you know. She wasn't afraid of anyone. I mean, look at all the hangers-on that run away even before the fight kicks off. She never did that.
G: You're right, but once M left the group we didn't see her anymore, did we? I mean, she was never a full member or anything.



- Spaaij, R. (2006). Understanding Football Hooliganism. A Comparison of Six Western European Football Clubs. Amsterdam University Press.
- Tamir, I. (2014). The Decline of Nationalism among Football Fans. Television & New Media, 15(8), 741-745.
- photographs of Newcastle United fans (1960) via 

The -ism Series (29): Gingerism

"Growing up as a redhead I was lucky enough to escape with just the occasional name-calling - having the surname Jaffa was no doubt a double-whammy. But attacking someone on the basis of their hair colour can be every bit as damaging as persecuting someone for their race (sic) or religion, and therefore, in some cases, needs to be taken just as seriously."
Sharon Jaffa, journalist



Ginger-baiting is discussed as a British phenomenon. At the same time, Britian is "the most red-headed part of the world" (via). Children are bullied at school because of the colour of their hair, women are stereotyped as fiery, sensuous, alluring, and emotionally instable, men suffer from more abuse (via and via). According to a study, nine out of ten ginger-haired men have been bullied (via).
In the US, red hair is not associated with teasing or bullying, it may even be considered as glamorous (via). In other European countries it is "celebrated and seen as something going back to the Vikings, representing strength and vigour" (via). Culture and gender play a role: Women with red hair in the U.S. are less anxious than men with red hair in the U.K. (O'Regan, 2014). Speculations about the reasons why there is gingerism in the U.K. range from Shakespeare's menacing characters having red hair, anti-Irish sentiment in the 19th century (via), redheads being accociated with sin and accused of being witches and burnt in the 15th century, to Ancient Egypt where the red-haired god Set who was believed to cause earthquakes and thunderstorms  and was calmed down by his worshippers by sacrifycing humans, i.e. redheads (via). "Just why this prejudice persists in 21st-century Britain is a mystery." (via)



A problem often mentioned is that nobody seems to feel responsible to protect those affected. It is not racism, not sexism, there are no marches, no education campaigns (via). The majority seems to think that it is acceptable to "slag off" people with red hair (Thorne, 2011).

"Red hair is an issue. Particularly in this country. Teachers often let it [bullying] happen because there isn’t a stigma around it in the way there is, quite rightly, about something like racism." Lily Cole

While some seem to think that treating gingerism like e.g. racism, sexism or homophobia could be a promising way to tackle the problem, others see discrepancies. Gingerism is tragic and wrong but not necessarily an -ism that can be compared to the core diversity dimensions and the discrimination mechanisms associated with them:

I'm a proud ginger and I've been abused, insulted and even, as a child, assaulted and bullied for it. I wouldn't wish that on anyone, but I'm pretty sure I have never been denied a job or the lease on a flat because of my complexion. I haven't been stopped and searched by police 25 times within a year because I am ginger, or casually assumed to be a threat, a criminal or a terrorist. I am not confronted by political parties and movements, some with democratically elected representatives, which would like to see me deported from the country or granted second-class citizenship.
Likewise, no one has been putting up posters recently calling for me to be executed for gingerness. There are no respected religious leaders telling me that my very existence is sinful and that I'm heading for an eternity in hell. Nobody wishes to bar me from marrying my partner, wherever and however we choose, because she has (peculiarly, I will be the first to admit) fallen in love with a ginger.
For that matter, if we ever did get married, neither she nor I have grown up in a world where I could be raped with impunity as the effective property of the non-ginger party. Nobody would have ever denied me a mortgage under my own name, as happened during our parents' generation, or asked to talk to the non-ginger of the house about technical or mechanical matters. I haven't heard any politicians or newspaper headlines, this week or any other, assume that if one of us stays at home to look after the kids it will inevitably be the redhead.
Racism, sexism and homophobia are not just woven into the fabric of our history, they are living dynamics in our culture, even in our economy. They are, to greater or lesser extents, systematic and institutional in most aspects of life and the struggles to remove them are intrinsic to wider political battles over the very nature of our society, public policy and economic system. In that light, I would not hesitate to add disablism to the list of systematic oppressions.
After finally breaking free of the shackling language of "cripples" and "invalids" and securing the legal rights to access work and social participation, disabled people now face a twin-pronged, co-ordinated attack from politicians and press, who demonise them as scroungers and malingerers while snapping thread after thread of the safety net which keeps many out of abject poverty, squalor and indignity. That is institutional discrimination and oppression of the most shameful kind. To even suggest redhaired people face similar issues is insulting, verging on the obscene.
Anti-ginger prejudice and bullying is real and harmful, but the idea that it equates to these systems of oppression is fundamentally flawed. It assumes that all forms of prejudice and discrimination are equal and occurring in the same context when they really do not. It assumes that all forms of discrimination are the products of individual bigotry and irrational prejudice rather than structural and institutional divides.
Ally Fogg



"Certainly, working with young people, it is an issue that comes up again and again. We have had cases where they have gone to the extent of dying their hair jet black or another colour to escape the abuse. We have also had young girls coming in for group sessions in which they will not take off their hats the entire time. If you look at any school now in towns and cities across the country, the diversity will be huge. It is quite disturbing that despite that diversity, and the amazing work going on to celebrate it, there are still these issues. There is no logic to this. It is ingrained in some part of our folklore."
Claude Knights

"Childhood can fuzz into a set of fudged impressions, but I would be surprised if the colour of my hair wasn’t brought up almost every single day for great swathes of my younger years. I’d frequently be called Ginger or Carrot Top by other pupils and at some point during my journey through an all-boys school, Ginger evolved into an altogether more aggressive-sounding Ginga with a hard G. The most creative refrain was Duracell – a reference to a battery’s rusty top."
Matthew Stadlen

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- O'Regan, K. (2014). Red hair in popular culture and the relationship with anxiety and depression. Cork: B.A. Thesis
- Thorne, T. (2011). The 100 Words that Make the English. London: Abacus.
- photographs of Senta Berger via and via and via

The -ism Series (28): White Supremacism

“We can’t all of a sudden get down on our knees and turn everything over to the leadership of the blacks. I believe in white supremacy until the blacks are educated to a point of responsibility. I don’t believe in giving authority and positions of leadership and judgment to irresponsible people.” 
John Wayne

supremacist
"someone who believes that a particular type or group of people should lead or have control over other types or groups of people because they believe they are better" Cambridge Dictionary

"It’s about a fragile sense of superiority (covering a sense of insecurity) that must be actively promoted to be maintained. It reflects a system that is inflexible, rigid, and socially autistic (awkward social relations)." Darcia Narvaez

White supremacy is an "institutionally perpetuated system of exploitation and oppression of continents, nations and peoples of color by white peoples and nations" in order to maintain and defend the established system of power, privilege and wealth (via) based on the racist ideology that white people are superior to other ethnicities. This privilege, in fact, is given by society without asking whether one wants it or not. According to Harry Brod, there is no option of not taking. And due to this very view of our heritage we can grow up without ever questioning our supremacy based on skin tone. We are deprived of the skills of cricital thinking (via) and may not even realise the privilege. According to a poll released in November 2015, about half of white US-Americans believed they faced just as much discrimination as blacks (via).
White supremacy is a deeply rooted system, a complex multi-generational socialisation process that defines relationships of power between whites and non-whites; it is a social control mechanism. This system started to develop when Europeans started conquest, colonisation and slavery in the 1500s (via) and continued e.g. with Jim Crow laws in the United States and the apartheid legislation in South Africa. White supremacy still exists, it just looks different.

"Historically white identity has been grounded in the experiences of fear, control, and violence. White supremacy leads to fear of people of color. Fear of slave revolts. Fear of loss of political power as in the time of Reconstruction. Fear of declining property values when neighborhoods change. Fear of losing social capital as in integrated education. Fear that whites will become a “minority” in the United States by the year 2050." (via)

"The white race is not a passive demographic act but an invented voluntary social institution whose only utility is oppression." Gardiner, 2009

"The Jewish people and the Negro people both know the meaning of Nordic supremacy. We have both looked into the eyes of terror."
Langston Hughes




- Gardiner, W. J. (2009) Reflections on the History of White Supremacy in the United States; pdf
- Narvaez, D. (2016). The Psychology of Supremacism: Whether White, Male or Human. Online: Psychology Today
- images of John Wayne (1972) via and via and  via

More:
::: America's white fragility complex: Why white people get so defensive about their privilege; Salon
::: Kendall, F. E. (2002). Understanding White Privilege; pdf

The -ism Series (27): Birtherism

"(slang, often pejorative, US politics) A movement or policy in the United States of America that doubts or denies that the current President is a natural-born U.S. citizen, thus implying that he (...)  is ineligible to be President."
Wiktionary

Birtherism, also known as "Barack Obama citizenship conspiracy theories", evolved during Obama's campaign for president in 2008. Rumours circulated that he was not a natural-born citizen of the United States, hence not eligible to be President of the United States. The theories ranged from him being born in Kenya to holding Indonesian or British citizenship.



"(...) the whole birther movement was racist."
Colin Powell

And as people susceptible to conspiracy theories tend to believe whatever fits into their reality, these theories did not stop after a short form of Obama's official Hawaiian birth certificate was released in 2008, neither after releasing a long form birth certificate in 2011 (yes, there had also been theories about why "only" the short form had been released). According to a poll carried out in 2008, a third of Republicans believed Obama was not born in the U.S. A poll carried out in 2009 showed that 11% did not believe he was born in the U.S., while 12% were unsure. Poll results from 2010 show that at least one quarter of adult US-Americans still doubted Obama's US birth.
Two demographic groups are more strongly represented among the "birthers", i.e. Republicans and Southerners. According to a survey, 58% of Republicans believed that Obama was not born in the U.S. or not sure about it while 93% of Democrats did not express any doubts. Only 47% of those polled in the South believed Obama was natural-born compared to 90% of residents of the Northeast, Midwest and West. A survey carried out in Virginia showed that only 32% of Republicans thought he was born in the U.S. A poll carried out in Utah in 2009 collected more information on demographics: The 33% that did not believe he was natural-born were "predominantly middle-aged, lower-income Republican-leaning individuals without a college education". Two years later, in 2011, a Gallup poll found that 13% of US-American adults and 23% of US-American Republicans continued having their doubts. In 2012, 3 out of the 11 electors from Arizona who cast their votes for Mitt Romney still had their doubts (via).

"While racial conservatives and partisan Republicans provide fertile ground for birther beliefs, it is also clear that those beliefs are influenced by their levels of education. (...) education is statistically and negatively correlated with birtherism, indicating that those with higher levels of education are less likely to believe in birtherism. On the other hand, birtherism is not just the result of ignorance." (Klinkner, 2014)

"Goldie Taylor, a commentator for the African American news site The Grio, characterized the demand that Obama provide his birth certificate as an equivalent of making him "show his papers", as blacks were once required to do under Jim Crow laws. Sociologist Matthew W. Hughey has cited many of the claims as evidence of racial "othering" of Obama against the conflation of the White Anglo-Saxon Protestant (WASP) subject as the ideal and authentic American citizen." (Wikipedia)

In his analysis of birthers, Klinkner (2014) found "several salient characteristics", i.e., "overwhelmingly white", "concentrated heavily among Republicans", and "much more prevalent among racial conservatives". The author used four questions of the racial resentment battery that is based on the view that "blacks do not try hard enough to overcome the difficulties they face and that they take what they have not earned". Half of all birthers were located in the three highest categories of racial resentment, compared to only 22% of the population.

"Powell is right. Birtherism is racism. The lie that the president was not born in America was an attack on the legitimacy of America’s first black president. The lie that the president is a Muslim is a play for votes based on bigotry against Muslims and fear of Muslims—which is based on another lie, that Muslims as a group should be tarred as terrorists when the truth is the exact opposite." (Observer)

"According to Mark Potok of the Southern Poverty Law Center, "the birther movement has gained a large following on the radical right ... it has been adopted by the most noxious elements out there". Some of those "noxious elements" include a number of avowed white-supremacist and neo-Nazi groups. James Wenneker von Brunn, an avowed white supremacist charged as the gunman in the June 10, 2009, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum shooting, had previously posted messages to the Internet accusing Obama and the media of hiding documents about his life." (Wikipedia)

"Dear Betty, you look so fantastic and full of energy, I can't believe you're 90 years old. In fact, I don't believe it. That's why I am writing to ask if you are willing to produce a copy of your long form birth certificate."
Barack Obama's birthday card to Betty White in 2012 (via)



- Photographs of Barack Obama via and via and via and via
- Klinkner, P. (2014): The Causes and Consequences of "Birtherism". Paper presented at the 2014 Annual Meeting of the Western Political Association; online

The -ism Series (26): Afrofuturism

"Afrofuturism is a literary and cultural aesthetic that combines elements of science fiction, historical fiction, fantasy, Afrocentricity, and magic realism with non-Western cosmologies in order to critique not only the present-day dilemmas of people of color, but also to revise, interrogate, and re-examine the historical events of the past." (via)



In 1992, Mark Dery coined the term "Afrofuturism" to describe a certain kind of passion for technology, innovation and mysticism in black culture, i.e. in art, film, music, and literature. Afrofuturism pioneers such as Sun Ra and Octavia Butler had not come into touch with the label (via).
According to Ytasha L. Womack, Afrofuturism is an intersectional, non-linear, fluid and feminist way of looking at alternate realities through a black cultural lens blending the future, the past and the present, exploring "race as a technology". It allows "black people to see our lives more fully than the present allows – emotionally, technologically, temporally and politically." (via)

"To me, a tenent of Afrofuturism deals with black people being told they must adhere to divisions which don’t exist, and only accept a limited number of stories about ourselves, such that we have an extremely limited concept of what material reality can be. Racism can give black Americans the impression that in the past we were only slaves who did not rebel; that in the present, we are a passive people beaten by police who cannot fight back; and that in the future, we simply do not exist." Steven W. Thrasher

A few minutes of "Space is the Place": WATCH



images of Sun Ra via and via

The -ism Series (25): Slackism

"In the United Kingdom and Ireland the words "trousers", or "slacks", were historically used for women's trousers."
Wikipedia

"I’ll come back in slacks and if he puts me in jail I hope it will help to free women forever of anti-slackism."
Helen Hulick


Above: Helen Julick in the slacks she wore to court.

In 1938, kindergarten teacher Helen Hulick made headlines when she testfied against two men accused of burglarising her home ... wearing trousers in court. Judge Arthur S. Guerin rescheduled her testimony and told her to wear a dress next time she appeared in court.

"You tell the judge I will stand on my rights. If he orders me to change into a dress I won't do it. I like slacks. They're comfortable."
Helen Hulick, 10 November, 1938

Five days later Hulick returned to court in slacks; The Los Angeles Times reported (15 November 1938):

In a scathing denunciation of slacks — which he prosaically termed pants — as courtroom attire for women, Guerin yesterday again forbade Helen Hulick, 28, kindergarten teacher, to testify as a witness while dressed in a green and orange leisure attire.

Guerin: "The last time you were in this court dressed as you are now and reclining on your neck on the back of your chair, you drew more attention from spectators, prisoners and court attaches than the legal business at hand. You were requested to return in garb acceptable to courtroom procedure.
Today you come back dressed in pants and openly defying the court and its duties to conduct judicial proceedings in an orderly manner. It's time a decision was reached on this matter and on the power the court has to maintain what it considers orderly conduct.
The court hereby orders and directs you to return tomorrow in accepted dress. If you insist on wearing slacks again you will be prevented from testifying because that would hinder the administration of justice. But be prepared to be punished according to law for contempt of court."

Hulick: "Listen, I've worn slacks since I was 15. I don't own a dress except a formal. If he wants me to appear in a formal gown that's okay with me.
I'll come back in slacks and if he puts me in jail I hope it will help to free women forever of anti-slackism." (via)

Hulick was given a five-day sentence and sent to prison.


Above: Helen Hulick (wearing a jail-issued dress) with her attorney William Katz and notary Jeanette Dennis

The Los Angeles Times continued:

"After being divested of her favorite garment by a jail matron and attired in a prison denim dress, Miss Hulick was released on her own recognizance after her attorney … obtained a writ of habeas corpus and declared he would carry the matter to the Appellate Court."

Hundreds of protest letters were sent to the courthouse, the Appellate Division overturned Guerin's contempt citation, and Hulick was free to wear slacks to court. When she came back to court a couple of months later, however, she wore a dress. She had made her point (via).


Above: Hulick dressed up for the followup court appearance on 17 January, 1939 (this photograph was published in the Los Angeles Times on 18 January, 1939)

photographs via and via and via

The -ism Series (24): Anti-Humanism

"In the end, anti-black, anti-female, and all forms of discrimination are equivalent to the same thing: anti-humanism."
Shirley Chisholm

Interviewer: "Are you a feminist?"
Meryl Streep: "I am a humanist. I am for nice easy balance."

"At one point, ‘feminist’ became a pejorative term. How did that happen? If you’re a feminist, you’re basically saying you’re a humanist."
Julianne Moore



Shirley Anita St. Hill Chisholm (1924-2005) was the first major-party black candidate for President of the United States and the first woman to run to the Democratic presidential nomination in 1972. Chisholm was a founding member of both the Congressional Black Caucus and the National Women's Political Caucus and known for minority and women's issues (via and via).

"When I ran for the Congress, when I ran for president, I met more discrimination as a woman than for being black. Men are men.(...) They think I am trying to take power from them. The black man must step forward, but that doesn't mean the black woman must step back." Shirley Chisholm

 "Of my two handicaps, being female put many more obstacles in my path than being black." Shirley Chisholm

"I want history to remember me not just as the first black woman to be elected to Congress, not as the first black woman to have made a bid for the presidency of the United States, but as a black woman who lived in the 20th century and dared to be herself."
Shirley Chisholm

"Tremendous amounts of talent are lost to our society just because that talent wears a skirt." Shirley Chisholm

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photograph via

The -ism Series (23): Populism

"Populism is the claim to raise 'the people' against 'the others' - against rulers, the political class; and/or against those who are not seen as part of the people, against those seen as 'foreign', as 'alien'."
Pelinka, 2008



Populism, the claim to represent and fight for the true wishes and interests of "the people", does not refer to a specific programme but to a specific technique, i.e., mobilising people against "those above" such as the government or the parliament, political parties, elites that can be defined in most different ways.




Contemporary populism which is currently rather widespread in Europe is characterised by "its cry for more democracy". This so-called cry for more democracy has potentially harmful aspects since it can be instrumentalised by plebiscites. "By stressing the plebisciterian against the representative component of democracy, populism is majority-oriented and tends to define democracy as majority rule. This leads to the populist tendency to play down or ignore the basic rights of individuals and minorities - be they ethnic, linguistic or religious minorities. As liberal democracy is based on the principle of majority rule as well as on the principle of minorty protection, this aspect of populism, creates at least tensions between liberal democracy as it is understood today and any kind of populist agenda: Liberal democracy is not just government by the majority - it guarantees at the same time protection of minorities and individuals." (Pelinka, 2008)




- Pelinka, A. (2008) The Rise of Populism, 39-48, in: Swoboda, H. & Wiersma, J. M. (eds.) Democracy, Populism and Minority Rights. Renner Institut
- photographs by the great Vivian Maier (1926-2009) via and via and via and via and via