Masculine Norms, Peer Pressure, Alcohol and Adolescents

The substance most commonly consumed by adolescents is alcohol. Among adolescents it is, generally speaking, boys who use higher rates of alcohol compared to girls. Interestingly, theory and research suggest that sex alone does not sufficiently explain why boys tend to drink more than girls and that masculine norms might provide better explanations.

Masculine norms are shaped at an early age and can have an impact on interactions with others. One approach to operationalise masculine norms is the Conformity to Masculine Norms Index which includes the drive for multiple sexual partners, controlling and restricting expression of emotions, the drive to win at all cost, striving to appear heterosexual, and engaging in risky behaviour. Hence, several theoretical models suggest that heavy drinking is seen as an expression of masculinity. In fact, studies among older populations, i.e., college students find a strong relationship between binge drinking and emotional control, risk-taking, and being a playboy.

Among adolescents, peer influence is strongly associated with alcohol use. Becoming a member of a peer group becomes a crucial point in many adolescents' lives which again comes with the cost to conform to values and behavours set by the peer group. Peer pressure among adolescents is "a robust predictor of alcohol use". This, again, includes adolescent girls who adhere to masculine norms.

Young and colleagues’ (2005) qualitative study among college women suggested that many heavy drinking women did so in order to gain acceptance of their male peers by “drinking like a guy.” However, it is unclear if girls’ drinking behavior is driven by conformity to masculine norms, peer pressure, or both.

In their study carried out among high school students living in the U.S. (124 female, 139 male, mean age 17), Iwamoto and Smiler (2014) found masculine norms to be directly linked to alcohol use and peer pressure. The connection was closer among boys than among girls. For girls, the masculine norms of risk taking and playboy seemed to have effects.

Specifically, boys who reported greater conformity to the heterosexual display, winning, and playboy norms were also reported greater susceptibility to peer pressure, while boys who reported less emotional control were less likely to be influenced by peer pressure. These findings make theoretical sense given that many boys perceive a need to prove their masculinity (Levant, 1996). Displaying one’s heterosexuality (Messner, 1992; Tolman, Spencer, Harmon, Rosen-Reynoso, & Striepe, 2004) and being promiscuous (i.e., playboy; Crawford & Popp, 2003; Smiler, 2012) are norms that reflect how one is perceived by others, and suggest these individuals might be more externally-focused and thus more susceptible to peer pressure. (Ivamoto & Smiler, 2013)

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- Iwamoto, D. K. & Smiler, A. P. (2013). Alcohol Makes You Macho and Helps You Make Friends: The Role of Masculine Norms and Peer Pressure in Adolescent Boys' and Girls' Alcohol Use. Subst Use Misuse, 48(5), link
- photograph by Joseph Szabo via